Islam is France: Diversity, discrimination and xenophobia

If leisure travel is often an escape, studying abroad can be a chance to engage with the difficult stuff, elbow-to-elbow with those working for change.

One of the most difficult bits in current societies is discrimination, a perennial human failing exacerbated in authoritarian climates. At IFE Strasbourg, Samantha, a student at Macalester College, joined the staff of AMSED, an NGO founded in Strasbourg and working internationally to combat discrimination and exclusion. AMSED’s method is to promote mutual understanding among cultures through programs of exchange, solidarity and training especially aimed at youth and youth workers. Samantha used her skill with digital tools to support AMSED’s work, from providing services and community to migrants and refugees (the ‘M’ in AMSED is ‘migration’) to building international solidarity networks through mobility and exchange.

Inspired by AMSED’s activity in favor of tolerance, inclusion and the value of diversity, Samantha chose to focus her field research on a particular form of discrimination prevalent today in the world: islamophobia. Speaking of Europe asked Samantha’s research tutor Jean Zoungrana to comment on the phenomenon of anti-Muslim discrimination and Samantha’s treatment of this complex topic. With degrees in both philosophy and sociology from the University of Strasbourg, Jean Zoungrana is Associate Professor in Social Science Research at the University of Strasbourg in the program “Social Practices and Development”. His research focuses on the sociology of knowledge as well as on social work, and he is also interested in forms of citizen participation.

As Professor Zoungrana explains “’Islamophobia’ first appeared as a term at the beginning of the 20^th century in the context of French colonialism. The word was used to differentiate Muslims in the French colonial administrative system and was weighted with prejudice against the religion of Islam. Samantha rightly goes back to this period and the subsequent, complex ties between France and Algeria, including a look at the role of the major figure of De Gaulle.”

“She follows up this history with an exploration of the notion of laïcité and the separation of Church and State in order better to understand the banning of the hijab in public institutions [like schools]. The ban is often felt to be discriminatory by and towards muslim women, and is a critical issue that continues to spark debates over Islam and the Republic.”

The subject of Islam as a part of the Republic became even more complex and controversial after the events of September 11, 2001, and didn’t get any less so following the terrible events in Paris in 2015 (Charlie Hebdo, Bataclan,…). Jean Zoungrana: “The neologism ‘Islamophobie’ became the object of vitriolic debate between two opposed camps: those who use the term to denounce discrimination towards Muslims and those who consider that its use is a coded term for any criticism of Islam. At the same time, in the wake of terrorist attacks, Islam crystallized for some anything to do with terror, islamicism and the like. The term has become so loaded that one is permitted to wonder if it is well-adapted to describe discrimination against Muslims. At the same time, the word exists and the reality of prejudice and discrimination exists as well and needs to be named and denounced.”

Islamophobia is indeed quite real. In its 2024 report “Being Muslim in Europe”, the European Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA) (cited by Samantha) compares the results of its 2022 survey of Muslim populations (“In the past 12 months have you ever felt discriminated against, for any of the following reasons:…”) by country for 13 EU member countries with the results of a 2023 survey by Eurobarometer, “Discrimination in the EU”, which asked essentially the same question of the population in general. Strikingly, those countries where the percentage of respondents reporting being discriminated against is the highest (Austria, Finland, Germany, Denmark, Netherlands) also show the greatest differential between discrimination of any sort (Eurobarometer) and the (much higher) rate of reported discrimination among Muslims. In Europe, in other words, the more that discrimination is a problem in a society the more likely it will take the form of Islamophobia.

Re-centering the discussion on France, Jean Zoungrana reminds us that “the specter of islamophobia brings to the fore the subject of the situation of Muslims in France and Europe. In this regard it is useful to posit two types of islamophobia: one is a version of cultural racism and the other is a specifically French version pretexted by the tradition of laïcité.” He sees as paradoxical the increasing use of the religion of Islam by forces on the right as a proxy for immigration (and thus a target of anti-immigrant sentiments) at the same time that “Islam is becoming truly a French reality”. Or perhaps it is more cause than paradox, triggered by an increased visibility of Islam in street prayers, religious festivals, readily available halal foods and, of course, the hijab especially when worn clearly as a choice by younger, independent women.

Whether it takes the form of a critique of religion or a defense of the sacrosanct laïcité (ostensibly in the name of la République), as Jean Zoungrana notes “it is as if the rejection of Islam has become a new form of xenophobia. Extreme right-wing parties everywhere in Europe are riding this wave.” His conclusion ? “Islamophobia is a new form of racism promoted by the European extreme right.” Between conspicuously “foreign” cultural practice, dubious calls to defend republican values (scrupulously undefined) and instrumentalized islamicist violence elsewhere, Islam in France and Europe provides the “danger of the stranger” that pre-fascist authoritianism requires if it is to gain a following.

What then is to be done? In the third chapter of her research work, entitled “How Can European Solidarity Contribute to the Struggle Against This Form of Discrimination?”, her advisor, Jean Zoungrana, describes the student's approach as follows: “Samantha draws on the experience of her internship and host organization to measure to what extent solidarity among diversity is promoted by AMSED’s various projects such as mutual aid between Algeria and the rest of the Mediterranean basin as well as intercultural actions for discovery and understanding among diverse ethnic and cultural groups.” In fact it was her personal experience of cross-cultural exchange and sharing in Turkey as a participant in a program of the European Solidarity Corps and Erasmus+ (exchanges in education, training, sport, etc.) that led Samantha to her research topic. “Samantha’s sojourn in Turkey and the relationships she began there lend a personal and authentic cast to her conclusion, in which she calls for AMSED-type actions and programs to promote a European vision of inclusive societies.”

Samantha answers the question in the title of this third and concluding chapter by advocating for, in her advisor’s words, “micro-activity as a strategic choice for change and especially for deconstructing social representations. Youthful actors, representing the future, can make a significant contribution through such means.” A conclusion fully in step with a growing awareness (and practice) in Europe that a groundswell of grassroots, concrete, micro-activity is a necessary companion to (equally necessary) political activism in favor of changes in policy and leadership.